Dynastic dates are not consistently agreed upon until 771 B.C.
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DYNASTIES
2207-1766 B.C. Xià
There isn’t a great deal of evidence from the Xià, but it is considered to have emerged from Lóngshān culture (chiefdom-level society), and evolved into Èrlǐtóu culture (the first state-level society and possibly an early stage of the Shāng). This dynasty’s first ruler, Dà Yǔ (Yu the Great), is credited with controlling the floods of the Yellow River. There is evidence of widespread flooding during this time (due to all nine planets in the solar system being in one line about 4000 years ago), and advancements in hydrology and flood control. Hereditary kingship begins during the Xià. The dynasty was divided into administrative districts, with a system of land tax. Its last ruler, Jié Gǔi infamously amused himself with the simultaneous drowning of 3000 subjects. (Many of China’s dynasties end with a tyrant, Jié being the first one on record.) The Bronze Age begins here, 2200-500 B.C.
1765-1122 B.C. Shāng
This culture is well known for its bronze casting, jade carving, horse-drawn chariots, and organized armies. Their hierarchy consisted of kings, nobles, commoners, and slaves. The first evidence of writing appears during the Shāng as pictographs carved onto oxen shoulder blades and tortoise shells, used for fortune telling and record keeping, known as oracle bones. Worship of ancestor spirits and nature gods was widespread, influencing all aspects of political and social life, as well as medicine and agriculture. The shamanism of this period would continue its influence into later religions. Human and animal sacrifices were also practiced; the former would stop with the fall of the Shāng. The first acupuncture needles appear here, also made of bronze.
1121-222 B.C. Zhōu
• Xī (Western) Zhōu 1121-771 B.C.
Unification of the Chinese empire. Origination of the concept tiān mìng (mandate of heaven) describing the king’s position as intermediary between heaven and earth, his duty regarding the welfare of the people, and his downfall if he neglects the will of heaven. (This concept was used to justify the overthrow of the Shāng.) The Zhōu’s political system included feudalism, royal inheritance, and a well-defined social hierarchy, with heavy emphasis on rites and ceremonies to maintain order. Education flourished and scholars (shì: person who knows all from one to ten) were held in high esteem. Emergence of a middle class. Introduction of iron. First recorded evidence of the Yì Jīng (Book of Changes), a textual oracle describing the inherent processes of life’s transformations, aiding in understanding one’s path and making decisions.
• Dōng (Eastern) Zhōu 770-256 B.C.
• Chūn Qīu (Spring & Autumn Period) 722-481 B.C.
• Zhàn Gúo (Warring States Period) 403-222 B.C.
Iron replaced bronze for use in warfare and farming, leading to significant advances in commerce, public works, and military campaigns. Power shifted from the royal line to the feudal lords with a breakdown in many institutions. Slavery ended here as well. The main difference between the Chūn Qīu and Zhàn Gúo was the number of warring powers, starting with dozens and finally ending with only seven. During this era of conflict, the “Hundred Schools of Thought” emerged. Philosophers sought answers to the turmoil of their time as past social conventions broke down. Emergence of Daoism, Confucianism, the Yīn-Yáng School and the Five Phases School, among many others. Writing of many additions to the Book of Changes, called Wings, developing its philosophical implications beyond divination. Writing of Sūnzǐ Bīngfǎ (Sunzi’s Art of War). Demonic medicine as result of breakdown of ancestral respect. Medicine began to distance itself from magic and ancestor worship to become an autonomous science. First descriptions of tongue and pulse diagnosis. Invention of the kite (5th century), cast iron and the decimal system (4th century), and the horse harness and plow (3rd century).
Daoist Philosophy
The three Daoist sages are said to be Huáng Dì, Lǎozǐ, and Zhuāngzǐ, and the three Daoist classics the Yì Jīng, Dào Dé Jīng (Book of the Way and the Power), and Zhuāngzǐ. The Dào Dé Jīng (DDJ) is attributed to Lǎozǐ. It was either written or compiled sometime before 300 B.C. Lǎozǐ may be a convenient name for several Daoist authors, but legend places him between 604-531 B.C. as a keeper of archives for the Zhōu dynasty who composed the 5000 characters of the DDJ on bamboo slips as he was leaving for the West. Much debate exists regarding the chronological placement of Lǎozǐ in relation to Zhuāngzǐ and Confucius. In contrast to the ceremonial and hierarchical order of the early Zhōu, Daoism spoke of behavior in accordance with naturally spontaneous self-becoming unhindered by attachment to fixed concepts (the source of frustration and conflict), and in harmony with the inner nature of one’s surroundings. The reality of our experience is ever-changing and dependent on our perspective; it is the momentary manifest expression of our ultimately un-namable and un-definable mystery. One who understands these concepts can move through life unhindered, manifesting one’s truth honestly, naturally and unobtrusively. (Daoist concepts and terminology are further elucidated in the Basic Concepts chapter.)
Zhuāngzǐ (370-286 B.C.) is said to have been a minor public official; his work is dated to around 300 B.C. and expands on the material of the DDJ. He explored further the concepts of self-transformation and the resolution of apparent dualities. His “realized person” is one who is like the butterfly, able to move gracefully through different phases of existence yet maintain his inner nature, mingling frictionless with the world because he understands that he is the hinge of the interchangeability of things. His mind is like a mirror, enabling him to respond truthfully to life without compromising his own truth. These concepts would later influence the development of Chán (Zen) Buddhism in China during the 6th century A.D.
Confucian Philosophy
Confucius is the Latin name for Kǒng Fūzǐ (551-479 B.C.) who became a teacher after his political career dwindled. He is said to have assembled or edited the Five Classics, books spanning from the Xià to the Zhōu, which were required reading for any educated person: Book of Changes (Confucius contributed to its Wings), Book of History, Book of Odes, Book of Rites, and Spring and Autumn Annals. He sought a return to the social and political order of the early Zhōu. Behavior should be in accordance with the needs of a defined sociopolitical hierarchy, with observance of moral conduct as described by the ancients, adherence to traditional custom, ancestor worship and proper performance of ritual. (Neglect of, or improper performance of ritual and music demonstrated moral anarchy.) The ruler must be a moral, highly educated man, leading by example and benevolent intervention, and all those below him must act within their station. Within the family structure, children were subservient to parents, with the father deserving filial respect regardless of his behavior. Women were decidedly at the bottom of the list, divorceable for any number of transgressions, including infertility or chronic illness. Humans were considered superior to all other life forms. All this is in contrast to the Daoist philosopher’s view, who did not see himself as above or below others, who valued the feminine, who viewed parenthood as bearing children without assuming any special authority over them, and who viewed the ideal ruler as acting so unobtrusively and naturally as to hardly be noticed (second best, according to the DDJ, is the Confucian-style ruler recognized by his subjects with songs and praises). The Daoist philosopher also valued personal transformation (experience) over talking about things (education); not only can talking or thinking about something obscure truly experiencing it, but institutionalized responses to experience prevent authentic feeling and eliminate the many possibilities presented by a situation.
Mencius, or Mèngzǐ (372-289 B.C.), added to the Confucian concept of benevolence, stating that one owed more benevolence to one’s close relations than to those occupying a larger social circle. He also believed, unlike Confucius, that one owed no respect to an authority figure who failed to bring peace and order; open revolt was then justified (rather than a passive and respectful refusal to obey orders).
Yīn-Yáng and Five Phase Schools
Both these schools are attributed to the later Zhōu period, though aspects of each can be found in earlier times. Many scholars believe the ideas of yīn and yáng were formulated by early students of the Book of Changes. They appear seamlessly in the DDJ. And early dynastic rulers used the five elements to justify and color their reigns. These concepts were combined into a coherent cosmology by the philosopher, Zōu Yǎn (350-270 B.C.). From the idea of the complementary polarities of yīn and yáng, which describe the relative qualities of things and transform into each other, the concept of the five “elements” as a metaphor for the stages of that transformation naturally followed. These elements do not refer to the innate composition and set properties of objects, as do the Greek elements. Instead they suggest how things behave and interact during the various phases of transformation, being dynamic rather than static. This system was used to explain the workings of the universe, the rise and fall of dynasties, and eventually the microcosmic workings of the body.
There were several other schools of thought during this time (utilitarian, military, hedonistic, etc.), many of which used the same terms (way, virtue, righteousness, non-action, etc.) but interpreted them quite differently depending on their philosophy.
Buddhism
Although originating in India during this time, Buddhism would later play a significant role in China. The historical Buddha (“enlightened one”) – Siddhartha Gautama – was born a prince near the current border between India and Nepal. Depending on the source, his life spanned 566-486 or, based on more recent research, 490-410 B.C. He sought answers during a great social upheaval similar to that of China. At 29, he left his home, family, and his native Hindu religion to become a wandering ascetic, and was called Sakyamuni (“silent sage of the Sakya clan”). He described the ephemeral, repeating cycle of physical existence (samsara) as characterized by suffering, which results from desire and ignorance. Those who can release desire and achieve enlightenment find release from the cycle of suffering (nirvana). This is done by practicing morality and meditation following the Eightfold Path: right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right body-mindfulness, and right concentration/meditation. One must avoid any action or word harmful to another since all processes and things are interconnected, and strive to avoid lust, self-delusion, and attachment. The concept that a self does not ultimately exist became integral to many Buddhist schools, though Gautama himself never took a definitive position when asked. He felt that since questions of being/non-being and self/other lie outside the realm of direct experience, and since the answers to those questions create mental constructs, they are inappropriate to the quest for freedom from attachment. Such questions only create more suffering. Enlightenment is more easily attained without such constructs.
The original tradition of Buddhism, called Theravada, focuses on meditation in a monastic setting, and is followed as a philosophy. During the 1st century B.C. a new version developed to accommodate the needs of the common people – Mahayana (Greater Vehicle). It promotes a spiritual life within the context of everyday affairs, and focuses on compassionate behavior and morality over the achievement of wisdom. Mahayana created a theology around Sakyamuni, and is followed as a religion with reference to a pantheon of higher beings. It spread north to China, Japan, Tibet and Korea. Theravada, also known as Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle), spread south to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Laos, Cambodia and other parts of Southeast Asia. Buddhism traditionally embraces all other religions and philosophies, which is one reason for its tremendous spread throughout Asia since it could accommodate local cultures. People from all walks of life, men and women, were accepted into monasteries. The basic canon of Buddhism is recorded in the Tripitaka (“Three Baskets”); its language is Pali (Theravada tradition) or Sanskrit (Mahayana tradition).
221-206 B.C. Qín
(The Wade-Giles equivalent is Ch’in, the root for the Western name for China.)
The Qín was the strongest of the seven remaining powers at the end of the Zhōu dynasty, and eventually claimed sole authority. The old feudal system was replaced by a centralized bureaucracy. Its political theory was based on Legalism, an off-shoot of Confucianism. Confucius and Mencius believed humans are born with moral virtue; Hán Fēi Zǐ (d. 233 B.C.) believed people are innately selfish and depraved, made to behave well only by strict laws, rather than through education or acculturation. Hán founded the School of Law (Legalism), which applied to rulers as well as commoners. Shǐ Huáng Dì, the ruler and self-proclaimed First Emperor of China, invited Hán to court but soon mistrusted his family ties and imprisoned him (where he committed suicide). Hán’s Legalism evolved into a ruthless totalitarianism. It adopted a utilitarian view (adapted from Mòzǐ), resulting in a focus on agriculture and public works over scholarship and education; people were conscripted to long periods of labor on state projects (including the Great Wall). A desire for uniformity of law and culture resulted in the standardization of the Chinese writing system, money, weights and measures, and philosophy (culminating in the burning of books and the death, exile or imprisonment of many scholars who taught “subversive” ideas). This is why there is so little information on things like the lineage of yīn-yáng theory. These concepts would later influence the Maoist revolution. Immortality cults were widespread during the Qín, and the emperor himself sent expeditions to find the Isles of the Blest where substances promoting long life were said to exist. Immortality practices included alchemy, magic, prayers and incantations, refraining from ejaculation during intercourse, avoidance of grains, meditation and visionary journeys. These practices would later become part of China’s first organized religions.
206 B.C. – 220 A.D. Hàn
• Xī (Western) Hàn 206 B.C. – 8 A.D.
The Hàn maintained the concept of a centralized bureaucracy, but reversed the ban on the various philosophies, soliciting scholars for government and university positions. And although Confucianism was adopted as China’s official doctrine (which it would remain until the 20th century), an attempt was made to study and unify all the various schools of thought – an effort known as the Hàn Synthesis. The four schools of thought mentioned above were blended for many purposes, including medicine. This amalgam is obvious in the Huángdì Nèijīng (The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic). It is considered the first text to fully elucidate medical theory; previous texts were either practical manuals or reference books. It is also the first recorded understanding of the circulation of blood. The system of correspondences was fully developed by this time (all things – colors, emotions, organs, etc. – were associated with one of the five phases). The Confucian influence can be seen in discussions regarding the five virtues, the importance of proper behavior for health, and the hierarchical arrangement of things, as in the mother-son and husband-wife relationships, and the organs as officials in government (eg. heart as sovereign, liver as general, lung as advisor, etc., all fulfilling their duties and maintaining order). The Daoist influence flavors the majority of the text, with its focus on practicing the Way, meditation, natural behavior, clarity of the mind, and simple living in accordance with the natural cycles of life (the basis of which is yīn-yáng theory). The juxtaposition of Confucian and Daoist ideas gives the Nèijīng something of a schizophrenic character but remains the basis for all medical texts which followed. Introduction of basic medical service on a national level began during the Hàn, with examinations for physicians focusing on good conduct more than medical knowledge.
Other texts of the period include the Huáinánzǐ (a compendium of the dominant currents of thought at that time, containing essays on cosmology, philosophy, politics, military affairs, the occult and other topics), Chǔcí: Songs of the South (an anthology of poems), and possibly the first version of the Shénnóng Běncǎo: Shénnóng’s Classic on Drugs (the first text on herbal medicine), though this title is not officially recognized until the Súi Dynasty. Sīmǎ Qiān, the Hàn’s grand historian, initiated China’s tradition of detailed history writing at this time with his Historical Records. Hàn culture shows tremendous advancements in technology and art (sundial, compass, lunar calendar, locks for canals, wheelbarrow, refined lacquerwork, and the first paper made from rags). Campaigns westward forged what would become the “Silk Road” network of interconnecting trade routes.
Daoist philosophy began to merge with immortality practices and shamanism, and the quest for immortality was ultimately identified with cultivation of the dào in a pre-religious movement known as Huáng-Lǎo Tradition. Wandering healers called fāngshì offered a mixture of divination, medicine (acupuncture, moxibustion, pharmacology, dietetics, alchemy), and shamanic services (purifications, exorcisms, ecstatic journeys, talismans); they are considered the precursor to Daoist religious priests, dàoshì.
• Xīn 9 A.D. – 25 A.D.
Brief period of failed reform, overthrown by a rebel peasant group who painted their faces red (the Red Eyebrows).
• Dōng (Eastern) Hàn 25 A.D. – 220 A.D.
Restoration of Hàn rule, the glory of which was never quite recovered. Contact with the Roman Empire. Introduction of Buddhism from India via the Silk Road. Deification of Lǎozǐ in 142 A.D. Fusion of Daoist philosophy (dàojiā), immortality cults, messianic cults, fāngshì practices, yīn-yáng theory, and aspects of Confucianism into the first organized Daoist religions (dàojiào): Tiānshī (Heavenly Masters) and Tàipíng (Great Peace, also called Yellow Turbans). A third movement, Xuánxué (Mysterious Learning), was more philosophical in nature and became part of Chinese Buddhism. The pantheon of gods in Daoist religion was likely influenced by Buddhism as well as local folk religions. Beginning of regular animal sacrifices to Confucius and his emergence as a near-religious figure. From here on, “Daoism” usually refers to the religion (dàojiào), and the Three Ways of China are Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Writing of the Nánjīng (Classic of Difficulties), expanding on and clarifying the medical concepts presented in the Nèijīng. Official invention of paper in 104 A.D. by Cài Lún (paper is mass-produced using bark, hemp and linen). By the 3rd century, paper replaces bamboo and silk for writing. Invention of the seismograph, the latitude/longitude grid, and the concept of the earth as a sphere with nine continents. Writing of the etymological dictionary Shūowén Jiězì by Xǔ Shèn sometime between 100-121 A.D., describing the six types of Chinese characters: pictographs, ideographs, logical aggregates, phonetic complexes, associative transformations, and borrowings.
Period of Disunity 220-589 A.D. – Chinese Middle Ages
The Hàn ended with power struggles between the eunuchs and landlord-officials, along with peasant rebellions headed by leaders of the Heavenly Masters and Great Peace religious sects. China would not be reunited again until the Súi. Note: the literature also mentions a period called the Six Dynasties, which includes only the six southern dynasties of the Middle Ages, ignoring the northern. The Middle Ages includes the Three Kingdoms, Jin Dynasty, Sixteen States, and Southern & Northern Dynasties.
220-280 A.D. Sān Gúo (Three Kingdoms)
After the fall of the Hàn, a succession of generals became dictators, resulting in the formation of three kingdoms: Wèi in the north, Shǔ in the southwest, and Wú in the southeast. This period is remembered as a time of chivalry and romance, as illustrated in the Míng dynasty classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Development of tea and porcelain. Rapid expansion of Buddhism, especially among the poor who desired salvation and reincarnation into a better life. The Great Peace sect had been crushed after its rebellion, but Heavenly Masters survived under the Wèi dynasty with official sponsorship by the emperor, and gradually spread throughout China.
265-420 A.D. Jìn
• Xī (Western) Jìn 265-316 A.D.
Brief reuniting of China under Hàn rule.
• Dōng (Eastern) Jìn 317-420 A.D.
Retreat of Hàn rule southward as barbarians massacred Chinese in the north. A common toy in the 4th century was the helicopter top, called “bamboo dragonfly” which utilized a form of helicopter rotor and propeller blade. Sir George Cayley, the father of modern aeronautics, studied it in 1809 and it became key to his inventions.
304-439 A.D. Shí Lìu Gúo (Sixteen States)
A series of northern barbarian kingdoms overlapping the Dōng Jìn.
386-589 A.D. Nán Běi Cháo (Southern & Northern Dynasties)
From the time of the Dōng Jìn, several dynasties are basically divided into non-Hàn rule in the north, and Hàn rule in the south. Heavenly Masters Daoism also divided into Southern and Northern sects, both of which renewed emphasis on Confucian ethics. Two new sects emerged in the south: Shàng Qīng (Supreme Purity) and Líng Bǎo (Numinous Treasure). Supreme Purity focused more on esoteric practices; Numinous Treasure focused on salvation rituals and borrowed heavily from Buddhism. Lu Xiujing of the Southern Celestial Masters compiled scriptures from all three dàojiào into the first catalogue of Daoist texts, the Dàozàng (Daoist Canon). Its arrangement into Three Grottoes mirrored the three main focuses of Daoism: meditation (Supreme Purity), ritual (Numinous Treasure), and exorcism (Heavenly Masters). Much of the Canon consists of commentaries on the DDJ and Zhuāngzǐ. Gě Hóng, also of the Southern Celestial Masters, wrote the Bàopúzǐ (The Master Embracing Simplicity), a text describing the methods of achieving immortality: wài dān (external alchemy – the use of metals, minerals, and herbs) and nèi dān (internal alchemy – visualization, breath control, and meditation); he attacked the Zhuāngzǐ for denying any difference between life and death, and the DDJ for its vagueness and lack of immortality methods. Introduction of a Buddhist meditation school from India around 520 A.D. by Bodhidharma, which melded easily with Daoist concepts to form Chán (Zen) Buddhism. Development of Chán, Tiendai, Hua-yen, and Pure Land (the major schools of Chinese Buddhism). Buddhism enters Japan and becomes the state religion. Invention of matches by impoverished court ladies during a military siege (tinder was scarce, so they impregnated little sticks of pinewood with sulfur). During the 6th century, silkworms were smuggled to the West, ending the Chinese monopoly on sericulture.
581-618 A.D. Súi
Beginning of the second great period of imperial unity. Resurgence of Confucianism, and restoration of examinations for government positions based on the Confucian classics. Census for equitable tax collection, and a system of equal land grant allocation. Exchange of ideas flourished between the various Daoist sects in the reunified dynasty, which recognized both Daoism and Buddhism. The Súi ended with an overly ambitious ruler who made disastrous campaigns into Korea, but who also united three main rivers, and consequently northern and southern China, with a Grand Canal.
618-907 A.D. Táng
Continuation of the Súi governmental system. Grand advancements in territorial influence, reaching as far as Tibet, Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and Annam. Power struggles and multiple rebellions beginning in 755 A.D. eventually resulted in the division of China into five dynasties in the north, and ten kingdoms in the south. Invention of woodblock printing, paper money, fireworks, brandy and whiskey. Time of the great lyrical poems. Scribes began to use ink seals. Introduction of Islam and opium into China. Printing of many Buddhist texts into Chinese. The formal debates between Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism that began during the Southern & Northern dynasties continued into the early Táng, resulting in much exchange of ideas. In the later Táng, severe restrictions were placed on the power and wealth of Buddhist monasteries, though Buddhism would regain power during the Sòng. Arrival of Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra in China, the three teachers of Esoteric Buddhism.
907-960 A.D. Wǔ Dài (Five Dynasties)
902-979 A.D. Shí Gúo (Ten Kingdoms)
960-1279 A.D. Sòng Invention of moveable type in 1040 A.D. Printing of all the Confucian classics, and the entire Buddhist Tripitaka. Government support and spread of schools. Invention of rockets and multi-stage rockets.
• Běi (Northern) Sòng 960-1126 A.D.
The Sòng never achieved the strength or unification of the Táng, and conflicts with barbarians as well as infighting let to further loss of territory. Civil service became a coveted position, and involved extensive examinations (building on the system of the Súi and Táng examinations). First record of a compass, though magnetic north was used in the 3rd century A.D. Heavenly Masters Daoism had lost popularity during the Táng, but regained power, drawing upon the teachings of Supreme Purity and Numinous Treasure, and became Zhèng Yī Dào (Way of Orthodox Unity), one of two remaining dàojiào in China today.
• Nán (Southern) Sòng 1126-1279 A.D.
Although limited in strength and expanse, the Nán Sòng was an era of great technological advancement and commercial wealth. Advancements in compasses and ships (junks) allowed merchants to expand their trade across the oceans (especially since traditional land routes were cut off). Large communities developed along coastal ports. With the concentration of the upper classes to cities, women became even more confined and objectified, as seen in concubinage and the binding of feet (neither of which was banned until the 20th century). Gundpowder was invented, and a form of hand grenade. The Sòng is well known for its porcelain using a celadon glaze, and naturalist landscape paintings. The first comprehensive history since the Hàn was written, covering 403-959 A.D., and the first encyclopedias were compiled. A revival of Confucianism ended the dominance of Buddhism, but not in its original form. It was a blend of Confucianism with elements of Daoism and Buddhism, called Neo-Confucianism, and was the official state doctrine until the end of imperial China. A new Daoist sect arose in the north, Quán Zhēn (Complete Realization), focusing on inner alchemy and harmonizing Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. It is the northern monastic complement to the southern community-based priesthood of Orthodox Unity that both still exist in China today. (Orthodox Unity dàozhì still give talismans to the sick for healing.) Zhu Xi based on dualism, humanity as naturally good, self-cultivation by education and “the investigation of things.” First autopsy.
907-1125 A.D. Liáo
An earlier dynasty, but one which controlled sections of the Sòng.
1032-1227 A.D. Xī Xià
The Běi Sòng reunited China, but maintained complicated relationships with the Liáo (northeast) and Xià (northwest).
1115-1234 A.D. Jīn
Controlled the north during the Nán Sòng.
1277-1367 A.D. Yuán
Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Kahn, unified China under foreign rule (the first of the northern barbarians to rule all China). His edict of 1281 ended a thousand years of debate between Daoism and Buddhism in favor of Buddhism. The Venetian merchant, Marco Polo, was a trusted official of the Mongol court for nearly two decades, but left when he realized his position would be in jeopardy after Kublai died. After his death, successive khans inspired the hatred of secret societies such as the Red Turbans, and the Mongols were driven north.
1368-1644 A.D. Míng
China was once again under Chinese rule, and a system of government modeled on the Táng was restored, though its territories were much smaller. Building of the Forbidden City at Běijīng (Peking). Grand maritime expeditions to foreign lands. Influx of Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries, many of whom served the court as cartographers and astronomers. The Míng ended with internal corruption, external threats from the Mongols and Japanese, and finally an invitation to the Manchus in an effort to quell rebellions. Manchuria would become the next great foreign force in China. Development of manufacturing industries for porcelains, textiles, and books (and consequently a more educated and wealthy populace). Less formal decorative designs emerged, reflecting economic changes. Publication of the last extant version of the Dàozàng. Unification of the various schools of Chinese Buddhism, and beginning of a lay Buddhist movement. Beginning of the Dalai Lama lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.
Wang Yang Ming: philosophy counter to the orthodox Neo-Confucianism, based on intuitive “learning of the mind” rather than Chu Hsi’s “investigation of things” based on reason. Execution of leading philosopher who opposed the deification of Confucius.
1644-1911 A.D. Qīng
Manchurian rule lasted far longer than Mongolian rule, primarily because the Manchus adapted to Chinese culture. The result was a period of peace and prosperity known as Pax Sinica (1683-1795 A.D.) The Manchus once again promoted Confucian scholarship and recruited the educated elite to serve in government. Territorial holdings were vast, including Tibet and Mongolia. This was the height of Jesuit success, followed by decline as rival Catholics denounced their tolerance of the practice of Confucian rites. Toward the end of the Qīng, corruption and poverty led to internal rebellions, and external threats from the West finally ushered the end of imperial China. The Opium Wars in the mid-19th century resulted as the Chinese tried to control trade through their own ports, and curb opium addiction by prohibiting its sale, both to no avail. The British took Hong Kong at this time, along with several other ports and a heavy payment from the Chinese. Wars between China and France, and then China and Japan in the late 19th century further weakened Chinese sovereignty and stability. In 1900 many nationalist Chinese calling themselves “righteous and harmonious fists” destroyed foreign buildings and killed foreigners, missionaries, and Chinese who had converted to Christianity in the Boxer Rebellion. With its failure came the Peace of Peking, a settlement designed to humiliate the Chinese, levying heavy fines and amending commercial treaties in favor of the West. The revolution of 1911 ended imperial reign.
1912 A.D. to present: Post Imperial Period
• Zhōng Huá Mín Gúo (ROC) 1912-1949 A.D.
Weak republican form of government headed by the KMT (National People’s Party). In 1917 China declared war on Germany with the Allies, and at the peace conference in Versailles demanded an end to foreign concessions; this was ignored despite its refusal to endorse the treaty. The Russian Revolution of 1917 appeared a success where China’s reforms had failed, spurring increased interest in Communism. The May 4th Movement in 1919 was a student uprising, attacking Confucianism and promoting science and a vernacular writing style. The first meeting of the CCP (Communist Party of China) occurred in 1921, and found supporters in government. Though the KMT forged ties with Russia to get aid for fighting northern warlords, Communists were eventually expelled from the cities once Jiǎng Jiè-Shí (Chiang Kai-Shek) took over KMT leadership. From 1930-34 the KMT killed about a million people during campaigns to exterminate the Communists, supported by Nazi aid. Máo Zédōng declared his Chinese Soviet Republic as Communists fled to the countryside on the Long March (6,000 miles). The Japanese invasion of the 1930s eventually forced the KMT to adopt a new alliance with the CCP, but by the end of WWII fighting between the Nationalists and Communists began anew. By 1949 the Communists held all of mainland China and Jiǎng moved his Republic to Taiwan.
• Zhōng Huá Rén Mín Gòng Hé Gúo (PRC) 1949-Present
On October 1, 1949, Máo Zédōng officially established the People’s Republic of China. Initially, non-Communists were included in government, but by the 1950s, authority rested squarely in Communist hands. A series of sweeping reforms were initiated to bring the people in line with Communist thought. Land reforms redistributed property from the landlords to the peasants. Social reforms erased the family hierarchy, giving women equal rights with men, and encouraging children to denounce non-Communist parents. Thought reforms focused on eliminating old ideas, customs and culture; existing religion, art and literature were denounced as cultural imperialism and were either destroyed or reshaped into the Communist mold. Economic reforms focused on eliminating bribery, fraud and corruption, and improving agriculture and industry.
Government-controlled collective farms (communes) and small-scale “backyard furnaces” for steel production ultimately failed to improve China’s situation; setbacks including severe food shortages and poor quality steel devastated the economy. In the 60s, conservatives in power restored domestic life on private family plots, and other pre-Máo aspects of industry. Máo and his supporters revolted against the tempering of revolutionary fervor, beginning the Cultural Revolution which closed schools, factories and farms, disrupted government, and severed ties with foreign nations. China was left in shambles. The upheaval finally faded in the mid-70s as conservatives regained power; they granted the people certain civil rights in a new constitution and renewed foreign relations, most notably with the West. China’s gradual recovery would begin with the Four Modernizations of 1973: agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology. Emphasis on academic achievement was renewed, and peasants were again allowed private plots. Since 1980, Daoist and Buddhist organizations have been allowed to resurface.
